power confined to the City and outward to the First Milestone. [Hans Beck; Antonio Duplá; Martin Jehne; et al] -- "The consulate was the focal point of Roman politics. The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. [28] Quaestors were elected by the Tribal Assembly,[28] and the assignment of their responsibilities was settled by lot. Consuls and Res Publica : holding high office in the Roman Republic. Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of public money required the approval of the senate.[18]. [27] The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)631090290: Document Type: Book: All Authors / Contributors: Georges Piéri [2] He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either the Gods or leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law. [1] His power, in practice, was absolute. In ancient Rome, a magistratus was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judicial and executive powers. [3] Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and after the Dictator was the censor, and then the consul, and then the praetor, and then the curule aedile, and then the quaestor. [1] As such, no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. Throughout the year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls. This, in effect, eliminated the monopoly that the aristocracy had over this power. [9] The king also had two Quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of Provincia, which required a division of responsibilities. This was a religious ceremony that acted as the certification of the census, and was performed before the Centuriate Assembly. [1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. [40] Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) retained their offices, but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator. John Paul Adams, CSUN Aediles had wide-ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome, and over the maintenance of public order. Texte remanié de: Thèse--Histoire romaine--Université Marc-Bloch de Srasbourg, 1999. Up until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to fight plebeian unrest. The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors. [15], The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate. Other actions that could result in a censorial punishment were the poor cultivation of land, cowardice or disobedience in the army, dereliction of civil duties, corruption, or debt. [7][16] Once a consul's term ended, he held the honorary title of consulare for the rest of his time in the senate, and had to wait for ten years before standing for re-election to the consulship. Aufsatzsammlung; Ancient Roman History [14], Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Priest of Quirinus-Romulus. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. [30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a priest (augur) interpret the omen. [12] The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)540583622 Online version: Pieri, Georges. [25] A censor had the ability to fine a citizen, or to sell his property,[25] which was often a punishment for either evading the census or having filed a fraudulent registration. [9] The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. In many respects, he functioned more as a parallel magistrate (like an inferior co-consul) than he did as a direct subordinate. Their lack of magisterial powers made them independent of all other magistrates, which also meant that no magistrate could veto a tribune. [35] On a couple of rare occasions (such as during the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus), a tribune might use a form of blanket obstruction, which could involve a broad veto over all governmental functions. After the censors had been elected, the Centuriate Assembly granted the new censors censorial power. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. [20] Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. In addition, they often spoke publicly about the balances available in the treasury. Any Roman citizen had the absolute right to appeal any ruling by a magistrate to a plebeian tribune. The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the People of Rome. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). [45], Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Republic&oldid=947090545, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), This page was last edited on 24 March 2020, at 07:16. While the consul Cicero and the contemporary historian Livy do mention the military uses of the dictatorship, others, such as the contemporary historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, mention its use for the purposes of maintaining order during times of plebeian unrest. Censeurs (Rome) Economie politique -- Rome -- Histoire. Ordinary magistrates (magistratus) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded: censors, consuls (who functioned as the regular head of state), praetors, curule aediles, and finally quaestor. Originally two, ultimately 15. [11], One check over a magistrate's power was collegiality (collega), which required that each magisterial office be held concurrently by at least two people. By claiming to witness an omen, a magistrate could justify the decision to end a legislative or senate meeting, or the decision to veto a colleague. Get this from a library! [20] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over the markets, and over public games and shows. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. [38] A tribune had to assess the situation, and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action. Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period. [6] Magistrates with imperium sat in a curule chair, and were attended by lictors (bodyguards) who carried axes called fasces which symbolized the power of the state to punish and to execute. [12] After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. The consuls presided over the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies, and had the ultimate responsibility to enforce policies and laws enacted by both institutions. Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate. Since the plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians (commoners) in the Plebeian Council, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians and the aristocratic patrician class), they were technically not magistrates. Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. [29] The Plebeian Council (principal popular assembly), under the presidency of a plebeian tribune, elected the two plebeian aediles. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. [22] When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. [8], All magistrates had the power of coercion (coercitio), which was used by magistrates to maintain public order. [19] Another magistrate, the Censor, conducted a census, during which time they could appoint people to the senate. They had the power over public games and shows, and over the markets. Two PLEBEIAN AEDILES were elected annually from among and by the plebeians, beginning (trad.) [22], Every five years, two censors were elected for an eighteen-month term. Since this did create problems for some magistrates (in particular, consuls and praetors), these magistrates occasionally had their imperium "prorogued" (prorogare), which allowed them to retain the powers of the office as a Promagistrate. or 400 (?) Tribunes, by virtue of their sacrosanctity as the representatives of the people, could veto anything or anyone. [43] The dictator, while not elected by the people, was technically a magistrate since he was nominated by an elected consul. [32] The treasury was a repository for documents, as well as for money. [26] Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders. 2 plebeians for the first time in 131 B.C. Instead, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. In addition, they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies. The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers). [6] Two consuls were elected for an annual term (from January through December) by the assembly of Roman citizens, the Centuriate Assembly. [9][10], The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods (auspicia), which could be used to obstruct political opponents. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (Censorship) and to conduct a census. Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse (magister equitum or Master of the Knights), to serve as his most senior lieutenant. In the absence of both senior and junior consuls from the city, the Urban praetor governed Rome, and presided over the Roman Senate and Roman assemblies. [43] Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the legions), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. The magistrates (magistratus) were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats). [28] They also had the power to repair and preserve temples, sewers and aqueducts, to maintain public records, and to issue edicts. This protection was called "Provocatio" (see below), which allowed any citizen to appeal any punishment. Always a patrician. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. While the term "plebeian magistrate" (magistratus plebeii) has been used as an approximation, it is technically a contradiction. [34], they were independent of all other powerful magistrates, Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic, Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_magistrate&oldid=949786949, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999), This page was last edited on 8 April 2020, at 14:39. Thereafter in descending order came the censor (who, while the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the consul, the praetor, the curule aedile, and the quaestor. [37], Tribunes, the only true representatives of the people, had the authority to enforce the right of Provocatio, which was a theoretical guarantee of due process, and a precursor to our own habeas corpus. [3] If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank, then it was called intercessio,[2] where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower-ranking magistrate. While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly. The last ordinary Dictator was appointed in 202 BC. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" and the "proconsular powers". [41] For a dictator to be appointed, the Roman Senate had to pass a decree (a senatus consultum), authorizing a Roman consul to nominate a dictator, who then took office immediately. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. Politics and government; Tax collection. [27], Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum). Censeurs (Magistrature romaine) Rome -- Conditions économiques. Sometimes the tribune brought the case before the College of tribunes or the Plebeian Council for a trial. While they had a curule chair, they did not have lictors, and thus they had no power of coercion. [21] Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. [Livy]. During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war. [18], Tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. [7] Throughout the year, one consul was superior in rank to the other consul. Therefore, he had to physically be present when the act was occurring. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army. After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. first plebeians in 300 B.C. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the plebeians, but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. [23] The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. [13] If one did not comply with the orders of a Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person[14] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. The office of quaestor was considered the lowest-ranking of all major political offices. [34] The sacrosanctity of a tribune (and thus all of his legal powers) were only in effect so long as that tribune was within the city of Rome. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. [40][41] The dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. [34] Tribunes could also use their sacrosanctity as protection when physically manhandling an individual, such as when arresting someone. [27] Censors had several other duties as well, including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state. A censor could reassign a citizen to a different tribe (a civil unit of division), or place a punitive mark (nota) besides a man's name on the register. first plebeian elected in 422 (?) Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. His power, in practice, was absolute. [33] Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,[34] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies. The Roman magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic. [33] The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune's assistant, and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles (discussed above). After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or maior potestas. [16], Censors could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. Every year, two curule aediles and two plebeian aediles were elected. Magistrates often chose which quaestor accompanied them abroad,[31] and these quaestors often functioned as personal secretaries[28] responsible for the allocation of money, including army pay. Magistrates of the republic were elected by the people of Rome, and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" (maior potestas). When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. elected NOT by the People (Populus) but only by the Plebs, in the. During the transition from monarchy to republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman king) to the Roman Senate. [8] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles) were technically not magistrates,[5] they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. First Plebeian elected in 254 B.C. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. [17] Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters, which was due, in part, to the fact that they held the highest ordinary grade of imperium (command) powers. While in the city of Rome, the consul was the head of the Roman government. While the magistrates had access to oracular documents, the Sibylline books, they rarely consulted with these books, and even then, only after seeing an omen. [21] Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to. [26] Once a census was complete, a purification ceremony (the lustrum) was performed by a censor, which typically involved prayers for the upcoming five years. Urban quaestors had several important responsibilities, such as the management of the public treasury, (the aerarium Saturni)[20] where they monitored all items going into, and coming out of, the treasury. [5] The most important power was imperium, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest-ranking ordinary magistrate). In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. [18] While the consuls had supreme military authority, they had to be provided with financial resources by the Roman Senate while they were commanding their armies. Since no tribune could retain his powers outside of the city of Rome, the power of Coercion here was absolute. Since the office could be easily abused (as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen), only former consuls (usually patrician consuls) were elected to the office. While a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that right, as well as the plebeian tribune's independence, theoretically still existed during a dictator's term. The new king then took the auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority (imperium) by the popular assembly.[12]. This is why, for example, each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors outside the pomerium or six inside, whereas the dictator (as the Roman King before him) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside. In addition, a series of laws were passed, which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator. If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen, that citizen could yell "provoco ad populum", which would appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. [18] The consul was the chief diplomat, carried out business with foreign nations, and facilitated interactions between foreign ambassadors and the senate. [23] No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. Economische politiek. patrician, from the fall of the Kings. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices, usually only former consuls were elected to it. For example, two consuls always served together. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. If a consul died before his term ended, another consul (the consul suffectus), was elected to complete the original consular term. [2] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. [34] Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. [22] Constitutional government dissolved, and the Dictator became the absolute master of the state. [44] Whenever a dictator's term ended, the term of his Master of the Horse ended as well. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. first elected in 444 B.C., to meet plebeian demand to be included in chief magistracy, but without having to elect a plebeian to be consul; there were no consuls elected when Consular Tribunes were elected. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens. john.p.adams@csun.edu. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate. The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" (potestas tribunicia) and the "proconsular powers" (imperium proconsulare). [9] A magistrate had many ways with which to enforce this power. [36] While a tribune could veto any act of the senate, the assemblies, or the magistrates, he could only veto the act, and not the actual measure. [30] Any expenditure of public funds, by either a curule aedile or a plebeian aedile, had to be authorized by the senate. In this case, the citizen would cry "provoco ad populum", which required the magistrate to wait for a tribune to intervene, and make a ruling. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. [24] Censors did not have imperium powers, and they were not accompanied by any lictors. Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Any action taken in spite of a valid provocatio was on its face illegal.[39]. 15.52 Roman Empire. in 494 B.C. [18] The quaestors were assisted by scribes, who handled the actual accounting for the treasury. Always a patrician. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over the city in place of the absent king. [but, in the next 100 years, only 32 families provided 90 plebeian consuls, originally served during the time between the death of one king and the qualification of another, later appointed to conduct elections for consul or dictator. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate.[15]. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). If they disobeyed the dictator, they could be forced out of office. [16][17] Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and often assisted the higher magistrates. The king chose several officers to assist him,[9] and unilaterally granted them their powers. [34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. [23] Censors were elected by the assembly of Roman Soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly, usually after the new consuls and praetors for the year began their term. Their actions could not be vetoed by any magistrate other than a plebeian tribune, or a fellow censor. [13] Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the Plebeian Council (popular assembly). [6] After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. In times of emergency (military or otherwise), a Roman dictator (magister populi or "Master of the Nation") was appointed for a six-month term. http://worldcat.org/entity/work/id/22530903 Imperii insignia, sella curulis und fasces : zur Repräsentation römischer Magistrate Open All Close All When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the powers that had been held by the king were transferred to the Roman consuls, of which two were to be elected each year. [1][2] His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through the political process of an election. [2] To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions. Later, a law (one of the Leges Clodiae or "Clodian Laws") allowed a citizen to appeal a censorial nota. There were several reasons for this change. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. [7] The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. [31] In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus, and a member of each of the four major priesthoods. Praetors usually stood for election with the consuls before the assembly of the soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly.
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